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Oswald Spengler was a German historian and philosopher best known for The Decline of the West, published in two volumes beginning in 1918. He presented civilizations as cultural organisms that pass through recurring phases of growth, maturity, and decline, an approach that challenged linear accounts...
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Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909 who suspended the constitution and ruled autocratically, overseeing Armenian massacres and the empire's accelerating territorial losses.
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