Ancient Egyptian civilization

Ancient Egyptian civilization is generally dated from approximately 3100 BCE, when King Narmer unified Upper and Lower Egypt, until 30 BCE, when Rome annexed Egypt following the death of Cleopatra VII. This span of over 3,000 years makes it one of the longest-lasting continuous civilizations in history.

Egyptologists divide ancient Egyptian history into the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE), Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE), and New Kingdom (c. 1550–1069 BCE), separated by 'Intermediate Periods' of political fragmentation. The New Kingdom produced many of the most famous pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II.

The largest pyramids were constructed during the Old Kingdom using massive limestone and granite blocks, with the Great Pyramid of Giza (built for Pharaoh Khufu around 2560 BCE) originally standing approximately 146 meters tall. Archaeological evidence from sites like the workers' village at Giza indicates the labor force consisted of paid workers and skilled craftsmen, not slaves.

Ancient Egyptians developed hieroglyphic writing as early as approximately 3200 BCE, using pictorial symbols primarily for monumental inscriptions and religious texts. For everyday administrative and literary purposes they used hieratic, a cursive script, and later demotic, an even more simplified writing system used during the Late Period.