Ghaznavid Sultanate

The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin in 977 CE, with its capital at Ghazni in what is now Afghanistan. Its most famous ruler was his son, Mahmud of Ghazni, who reigned from 998 to 1030 and built the sultanate into a major power.

He launched repeated raids into the Indian subcontinent, traditionally counted as seventeen campaigns, largely to seize wealth rather than permanent territory. The most notorious was his sack of the wealthy Somnath temple around 1025.

Mahmud's court at Ghazni attracted major Persianate figures, including the poet Ferdowsi, who completed the Shahnameh, the great Persian epic, during that era. The scholar Al-Biruni also worked under Ghaznavid patronage, including studies connected to India.

The dynasty, which ruled from 977 to 1186, was finally extinguished when the Ghurids under Muhammad of Ghor captured the Ghaznavid seat at Lahore in 1186. The Ghurids then pushed into northern India, setting the stage for the Delhi Sultanate.